Recent advances in the green synthesis of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles from plant extracts for biomedical and water remediation applications

Plant-mediated synthesis of nanoparticles (NPs) has emerged as a significant field due to the use of lesser chemicals, being less expensive, and adhering to green chemistry principles. NPs play an important role in addressing global issues such as water purification, sustainable agriculture, clean energy, and medical applications. Herein, we review the recent progress (2021–2025) in the green synthesis of metal (Fe, Au, Ag, Se, Cu, Co, Pd, Pt) and metal oxide (ZnO, ZrO₂, NiO, FeO, ZnO, TiO₂, CuO, PbO, Fe₃O₄) nanoparticles, as well as their various characterization methods. It also highlighted the wide range of plant sources, synthesis-assisted methods and parameters, and functional applications, such as antioxidants, antimicrobials, photocatalysis, drug delivery, and biomedical applications due to its superior biocompatibility, low cost, and high efficacy against multidrug-resistant infections. Significant findings highlight the complexities of plant geographical and seasonal distributions and compositions, implying that green synthesis is limited by production time and location, as well as low purity and yield.