Fractional Time-Delayed Differential Equations: Applications in Cosmological Studies

Fractional differential equations model processes with memory effects, providing a realistic perspective on complex systems. We examine time-delayed differential equations, discussing first-order and fractional Caputo time-delayed differential equations. We derive their characteristic equations and solve them using the Laplace transform. We derive a modified evolution equation for the Hubble parameter incorporating a viscosity term modeled as a function of the delayed Hubble parameter within Eckart’s theory. We extend this equation using the last-step method of fractional calculus, resulting in Caputo’s time-delayed fractional differential equation. This equation accounts for the finite response times of cosmic fluids, resulting in a comprehensive model of the Universe’s behavior. We then solve this equation analytically. Due to the complexity of the analytical solution, we also provide a numerical representation. Our solution reaches the de Sitter equilibrium point. Additionally, we present some generalizations.